Declinationes Latinæ

The category nomen (< nōmen “name, designation”), plural nomina, includes words that designate a state, living being, object, proper name, etc., or modify it more narrowly.

Nomina include:

The general structure of Latin declensions is as follows:

This structure applies to all nouns, pronouns and adjectives.

The cases correspond to prepositions plus nouns or pronouns in English:

The sixth case, the vocative, does not appear here, since as a rule it is the same as the nominative.  Only the second declension (see below) has a special form:  for the singular of nominatives ending in –us, it is –e;  for those ending in –ius, it is –ī.  The vocative case is the one used when calling someone:  Cæsar!

Nouns, of course, have only one gender apiece, and so fit only in one column (m., f., or n.) each.  Thus, the word vir (“man”) will go into only into the masculine (m.) column, the word mulier (“woman”) only the femine (f.) column, and the word opus (“work”) only the neuter (n.) column.  As in English, some nouns are used only in the singular or only in the plural.

Adjectives (e.g., bonus, -a, -um “good” and malus, -a, -um “bad”) and third-person pronouns (e.g., is “he,” ea “she,” id “it”) generally fill out the entire table, because adjectives must agree with their nouns in gender, case and number.  Pronouns stand in the place of nouns, and so must be the same gender and number as the nouns they represent, while their case depends on their usage in the sentence or clause, independent of those nouns:  Video aquam. (“I see the water [accusative].”)  Ea fluit. (“It [nominative] is flowing.”)

Substantives:

Substantives are words designating things, living beings, conditions, places and many other things, for instance dog and cat, man and woman, house and garden, fear and joy, etc., including abstractions.  Except at the beginning of sentences, substantives are written with small initial letters.  Only proper names like Mārcus or Gallia (Gaul) are capitalized.

DĒCLĪNĀTIŌNĒS NŌMINUM

For nouns, there are five declensions (characterized by stems [thémata] ending in “thematic” vowels or in consonants), and two for adjectives.  (The first adjectival declension uses the endings of the first and second noun declensions;  the second adjectival declension uses the endings of the third noun declension.)  The distinguishing mark of each declension is the ending (dēsinentia or terminātiō) of its genitive singular (genetīvī singulāris):

Thus, to know which declension a noun belongs to, we have to know not only its nominative form, but also its genitive.  For example, if we know Cæsar, Cæsaris, we know that the name “Cæsar” (spelled Caesar in many dictionaries) belongs to the third declension because its genitive singular ending is -is.  In dictionaries, the genitive ending is usually listed immediately after the nominative, as, for instance, Cæsar, -is.

Except for the third or “mixed” declension, which combines three classes, the declensions are often referred to by their stem vowel;  so they are called the “a-declension” and so forth.  Each of these declensions is subdivided into two or more subclasses depending on various criteria.

The word stem is found by clipping off the end of the genitive plural:

The variations of the forms according to their cases and numbers are illustrated with examples or paradigms (from the Greek παράδειγμα “model, example” for reproduction or imitation)

a-Declension (First Declension, Prīma Dēclīnātiō)

Paradigm:  anima, —æ  f.,  “soul, breath, life”

Notes

Most substantives of the a-declension are feminine.  But the following are masculine:

The following occur only in the plural (plural words):

The following occur only in the singular:

Many substantives have different meanings in singular and plural:

In some combinations older forms are retained:

o-Declension (Second Declension, Secunda Dēclīnātiō)

Includes substantives whose nominative singular end in –us and –er, as well as neuters in –um.

Substantives in –us :

Paradigm:  amīcus, —ī  f.,  “friend”

The vocative is not formed, as in all the other declensions, like the nominative, but uses the ending –e:

Salve, amīce!  Hello, friend!

Substantives in —ius have —ī  in the vocative:

¡Danger!  Possible confusion!  Not all substantives in —us belong to the o-declension.  They can also belong to the u-declension.  For this reason you should always learn the genitive form along with the nominative — pronouncing it aloud helps in remembering it:  “amīcus, amīcī — masculine — friend,” but “cāsus, cāsūs — masculine — fall;  anything that befalls:  case, incident;  accident”

Substantives in –er :

Paradigm:  puer, —ī  m.,  “boy”

Like adjectives in English, Latin adjectives describe substantives more closely:  a big house, the small child.

Latin has two categories of adjectives:  those of the a/o declension and those of the third declension.  The latter are again divided into consonant stems and i-stems.

Adjectives can show comparison;  that is, they form a comparative degree (from comparāre, “compare”), e.g., “faster,” and a superlative degree (from superferre, “carry to a higher degree”), e.g., “fastest.”

Derived from adjectives are many adverbs (< ad-verbium  “belonging to the word/verb”) which modify a verbal activity more closely, answering to the question, “how does something happen?”  For instance:  “They go fast.”  (“How do they go?”  “Fast.”)

However, in contrast to adjectives, adverbs are not declined;  they are unchangeable, but they can express comparison.

General observations:

• Latin has adjectives which have three endings which correspond to all three genders;  those of two endings which have only a single form for both masculine and feminine and a separate one for the neuter;  as well as those of one ending, which have only one ending for all three genders.

• Adjectives adapt in case, number and gender to their respective substantives.  They are congruent with the words they modify.
  

  templa māgna	big temples	nom./acc. pl. n.
  puellæ audācēs	bold girls	nom. pl. f.

• Adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively.  As attributes they depict a property of a substantive;  as predicates they identify the predicate more specifically in answer to the question, “like what?”  That is, they say something about the state in which a subject undertakes an action:

  Līberī mæstī in lūdum eunt.

  Attributive:  The sad children go to school (i.e., they are innately sad).
  Predicative:  The children go to school sad (“as individuals made sad”).
  In both cases the adjective agrees in case, number and gender with its noun.

Adjectives of the a-/o-Declension

Adjectives of the a-/o-declension are declined like the substantives, respectively, of the a-declension and o-declension.  The adjectives of three endings in -us, -a, um  along with those in -er, -(e)ra, -(e)rum  belong to this group.

Adjectives in -us, -a, -um:

Paradigm:  māgnus, -a, -um,  “big, important”

Notes

As in the substantives of the o-declension, the voc. sg. m. takes a special form:  māgne.

The perfect participle passive (PPP), the future participle active (FPA), the gerund and the gerundive are declined like the adjectives of the a-/o-declension, ending in -us, -a, -um.

As an example:  agō, agere, ēgī, āctum, “set in motion, drive, act, do”

Adjectives in -er, -(e)ra, -(e)rum

These adjectives are declined like māgnus, -a, -um, except for the nom. sg.  Only a small number of this group keeps the -e- in all cases;  all others have it only in the nom./voc. sg. m.  Thus, always learn the nom. f. and n. together with it!

The -e- is present in all cases in, e.g.:

The -e- is found only in the nom. and voc. sg. in, e.g.:

Adjectives of the Third Declension

In addition to the adjectives of the a-/o-declension, there are also adjectives of the third declension.  They are divided into consonant stems and i-stems.

Consonant Stems:

Only a few adjectives belong to this subclass.  They are adjectives of one ending.  As with third-declension consonantal substantives, their specific characteristics show up in the abl. sg., gen. pl. and, in the neuter of the nom./acc. pl.:  -e, -um, -a

Paradigm:  pauper, -eris,  “poor”

In dictionaries, consonantal-stem adjectives are always listed with their genitive singular:

i-Stems:

Aside from a few exceptions belonging to the consonant declension, virtually all adjectives of the third declension belong to the i-stems.  As with third-declension i-stem substantives, their specific characteristics are -ī, -ium, -ia.  In contrast to those corresponding substantives however, the acc. sg. m./f. takes the ending -em instead of -im.

But i-stem adjectives do not all look alike.  There are three groups:

In dictionaries, i-stem adjectives are listed as follows:

The single-ending present participle active (PPA) is declined like the i-stems.  For example:  agere, agō, ēgī, āctum “drive, act” => PPA:  agēns, gen. sg. agentis, etc.  If the PPA is used as a pure adjective, its ablative singular ends in -ī :  ab excellentī ōrātōre (“by an excellent orator”).  However, when used as a verbal adjective (i.e., as a true participle, predicatively, as a substantive or, often, in an ablative absolute construction), the abl. sg. ends in -e :  excellente ōrātōre (“while excelling as an orator”).  Similarly, as an adjective:  a sapientī viro (“by a wise man”).  But as a substantive:  a sapiente (“by a philosopher”).

The genitive plural of the PPA ends in -ium in classical Latin, the exception being in poetry, where it is -um.

Participio præsenti significatur actio quæ eodem tempore quo actio verbi temporalis primarii.  Est exemplum:  Platō scribēns mortuus est, id est:  Plato eo temporis puncto mortuus est, quo scribebat.

Participium præsens, cujus exitus est -āns, -ēns, quum induit vim substantivi, in ablativo singulari accipit desinentiam -e :  ideo:  ārdente curiā (“while the senate house was aflame” [i.e., with eagerness;  predicate nominative in English]);  quum vero fit quasi adjectivum verbale, exit in-ī :  ārdentī studiō (“with burning zeal”).

Quod ad participium præsens attinet, difficulter sane definiri potest quænam sit vera desinentia in ablativo singulari.  Tamen:

1. Quum participium vim induit substantivi atque separatim adhibetur, tutior est desinentia-e  in ablativo singulari, atque -um  in genetivo plurali:

   • A sapiente nihil est alienum
   • Sapientium est spernere divitiās;

2. semper quidem accipiunt terminationem -e in ablativo singulari atque -ium in genetivo plurali quum adhibentur ut vera participia, vel quum agitur de ablativo sejuncto:

   • ab Æneā fugiente ad lītora;
   • regnante Romulo;
   • inflammāre animōs audientium;

3. quum vero participium adhibetur adjectivi vi, conjunctum cum nomine, tunc mavult exire in -ī  in ablativo et -ium  in genetivo plurali:

   • quicquid agis, sapientī consiliō age;
   • sapientium virōrum est spernere divitiās.

• in continentī Europæa.

Participium futurum, si adhibetur cum modo verbi temporalis « esse », vocatur etiam forma periphrastica activa.  Ita:

• vocātūrus sum (eram) patrem tuum.

Declension of Participles.

1. The PRESENT PARTICIPLE ACTIVE is declined like dīligēns (dīligentis), No. 82, except in the ABLATIVE SINGULAR where it has e.

   Thus:	laudāns	laudāns	laudāns
   	laudant-is	laudant-is	laudant-is
   	etc.	etc.	etc.
   Abl.	laudante	laudante	laudante

   Gallī fortiter pugnantēs occīsī sunt.
   The Gauls fighting bravely were killed.

   Deō adjuvante, vincēmus.
   God helping, we shall conquer.

      Note:

2. ALL OTHER PARTICIPLES are declined like magnus, a, um.

   The future active:	laudātūrus, a, um
   Stem:	laudātūr-
   The perfect participle passive:	laudātus, a, um
   Stem:	laudāt-
   The gerundive:	laudandus, a, um
   Stem:	laudand-

Adjectival comparison is used to contrast two or more things, and in likening one thing to another.  An activity, a living creature or an object may be compared to another in respect to a property, or it may be stressed more strongly, e.g.:

As in English, these degrees are named as follows:

Care must be taken to assure the congruence of these forms of comparison in case, number and gender with their corresponding substantives.

There is also a difference between regular comparison, followed by almost all adjectives, and the irregular comparison of a few adjectives.

For the comparative degree of adjectives with regular comparison, the masculine and feminine forms end in -ior and the neuter in -ius.

The comparative degree is declined like the adjectives of the consonant stems (third declension).  Note:  The comparative of all adjectives follows this declension, regardless of the declension to which their positive degree belongs.

The Comparative

Paradigm:  altus, -a, -um,  “high, deep”  => altior, -ius  “higher, deeper”

Using the Comparative:

1. The comparative can be used for direct comparison.  It is then followed by the compared subject, which is introduced by quam (“than”).  In English it is translated correspondingly with a comparative:

   Hæc turris altior quam illa est.

   This tower is higher than that one.

   Instead of quam, the subject to be compared may stand in the ablative, which in this function is called the ablativus comparationis :  Hæc turris altior illā est.

2. The comparative is also used alone, without a compared subject.  In this case it is best translated with “quite,” “rather,” or “very.”

   Mōns altior est.

   The mountain is quite high.

The Superlative

The superlative of most adjectives appends the ending -issimus, -issima, -issimum to the stem.

Adjectives with a stem ending in -er  (the a-/o-declension and consonant stems) form their superlatives with -rimus, -rima, -rimum, and those ending in -lis use -limus, -lima, -limum.

The superlative of all adjectives is declined according to the a-/o-declension.

Using the Superlative:

The superlative can be used as the highest degree of comparison — in other words, as the superlative strictly speaking.  In English it can likewise be translated with a superlative:

But if the form of the superlative is used to emphasize something, or to express a higher degree of a property, it must be translated with “very,” “extremely,” “utterly,” etc.:

The translation to be used has to be determined by the context:

Irregular Comparison

Adjectives of the a-/o-declension that end in -eus, -ius, or -uus (but not -quus! ) dispense with the regular suffix in -ior/ius and are instead preceded by the adverb magis, and followed by the word quam (“than”):

These same types of adjective quite frequently build their superlatives by preceding their positive degree with words meaning “very,” “extremely,” “absolutely” — in Latin admodum (“very much, quite”), maximē (“most of all, absolutely”), valdē (“very much, intensely”).  For example, maximē necessārius (“absolutely necessary”), admodum idōneus (“perfectly suitable”), valdē strēnuus (“extremely energetic”).

Adjectives ending in -dicus, -ficus, or -volus form their comparatives by first changing these stem endings into -dic-ent-, -fic-ent-, or -vol-ent-, and then adding the suffix -ior/ius to it:

A few adjectives base their comparative and superlative on a different stem.  These must be learned by heart.

Adjectives of the a-/o-declension form their adverbs by adding the ending -ē to the bare stem.  The adverb is not declined.

With adjectives of the third declension, the ending -iter is appended to the stem.  Adjectives whose stem ends in -nt take only -er.

Latin also has a number of adverbs (e.g., frūstrā “in vain,” diu “for a long time,” cito “swiftly,” subitō “suddenly,” etc.) which are best learned by heart with the vocabulary.

The Comparative of Adverbs

For the comparative of adverbs, Latin uses the nom./acc. sg. n. of the adjective:  -ius.  This form, like the positive degree, is indeclinable.

In the superlative, adverbs use the termination -issimē, -rimē or -limē, depending on the ending of the stem.

Pronouns can either substitute for a substantive (< prō nōmine “in place of a noun”) or accompany one.  There are thus two applications:

Latin has the following types of pronouns:

General observations:

For the most part, pronouns are declined according to the a-/o-declension;  however, in the genitive and dative singular, many have divergent forms;  a few of them differ also in the nominative and accusative neuter:

Personal and Possessive Pronouns

Latin peronsal (egō  “I,” tū  “thou/you,” …) and possessive (meus, -a, -um  “my,” tuus, -a, -um  “thy/your,” …) pronouns have in common the fact that, in the third person, they distinguish between reflexive and non-reflexive forms.  That is, it depends on whether the pronoun refers back to the subject of the clause.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns are substitutes for substantives (persons or things).  They have individual forms for all three persons (first, second and third).

The genitives of nōs and vōs are differentiated in type:

Although there is no differentiation between reflexive and non-reflexive forms of the first and second persons, the third person has a special reflexive form:

The non-reflexive personal pronouns of the third person are is, ea, id  (see below).

Using Personal Pronouns:

1. In their case forms, personal pronouns within a clause serve not as independent words containing their full meaning within themselves, but as references adapted in grammatical function to the clause:  in other words, the accusative functions as an accusative object, the nominative as a subject, etc.  In gender and number these pronouns are congruent with the substantive that they refer to.

   Gājus Mārcum clāmat.	Gajus calls Mark.
   Mārcus autem eum nōn audit.	But Mark does not hear him.

2. Normally, personal pronouns are not used in the nominative, since the grammatical person is contained in the ending of the verb.  They appear only when something is being stressed or a contrast expressed:

   Egō epistulam scrīpsī.	I wrote a letter.
   tū autem nihil fēcistī.	But you did nothing.

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns (< possidēre  “possess”) express a possessive relationship.  They refer back to their antecedent and are declined regularly according to the a-/o-declension.

The forms of suus, -a, -um  are used only reflexively.  For non-reflexive possessive pronouns of the third person, the genitive forms of is, ea, id  (see below) are used:  singular ējus “his/her/its”;  plural eōrum, eārum, eōrum “their.”

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns (< dēmōnstrāre “point out, show”) can be used versatilely and generally indicate objects, living creatures, states and activities:  these children, those children, the same book.

Latin has several demonstrative pronouns which are for the most part dependent on the distance to the speaker.  Most can stand alone by themselves (substantive usage) as well as, like adjectives, with a substantive (adjectival usage).  Common to all is the genitive singular in -ius  and the dative singular in -ī.

The demonstrative hic, hæc, hoc has the following forms:

Note:  In the genitive singular and in all of the plural, a -c  has dropped off, having originally developed from -ce  (“here”), a particle with an indicating function.

The demonstrative pronoun ille, illa, illud  is declined as follow:

Following the same pattern as ille, illa, illud  are iste, ista, istud  (“that one there”) and ipse, ipsa, ipsum  (“him-/her-/it-self”), with the exception of the nominative and accusative singular neuter ipsum.

The paradigm for the pronoun is, ea, id  is as follows:

General observations:

The pronoun īdem, eadem, idem  (“the selfsame”) arose from is, ea, id  + -dem:  genitive singular ējusdem, dative singular eīdem,  etc.

But note:  In the acc. sg. m. and f., -m-  becomes -n- :  eundem, eandem.  Likewise in the gen. pl. of all genders:  eōrundem, eārundem, eōrundem.

Relative and Interrogative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns

The relative pronoun quī, quæ, quod is declined as follows.

Using Relative Pronouns:

A relative pronoun introduces an attributive subordinate clause that more closely modifies the substantive to which it refers in gender and number.  Its case depends upon its function within the clause.

A unique feature of Latin is its employment of a relative conjunctional clause.  Translate the relative pronoun with a demonstrative or personal pronoun:

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns (< interrogāre  “ask”) are used to ask about living beings or objects.  There are two types:

1. quī?, quæ?, quod?  (which?) is used adjectivally and has the same the paradigm as the relative pronoun.

   Quī senātor modo dīcit?

   Which senator is speaking right now?

2. quis? (who?) and quid? (what?) are singular only.  They are used substantivally and follow the same paradigm as the relative pronoun, except for the nominative/accusative singular neuter.

   	m./f.		n.
   Nōm.	quis?	who?	quid?	what?
   Gen.	cūjus?	whose?	cūjus?	whose?
   Dat.	cui?	to whom?	cui?	to what?
   Acc.	quem?	whom?	quid?	what?
   Abl.	quō?	by/with whom?	quō?	by/with what?

   Quis mē vocat?	Who is calling me?
   Quid accidit?	What happened?

Indefinite Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives

Indefinite pronouns and part of the pronominal adjectives are used when someone or something can or should not be determined more closely:  anyone, anything, a certain, the ones … the others, etc.

Indefinite Pronouns

aliquis, -quid  and aliquī, -quæ, -quod

The indefinite pronoun aliquis, aliquid  (“someone,” “something”) is used substantivally.  The declension is quite simple:  Prefix the form ali- to the forms of the interrogative pronoun quis? (who?) or quid? (what?), respectively.  Note:  in the neuter, some forms are supplemented with rēs.

In adjectival use, ali- is prefixed to the forms of the relative pronoun, except for the nominative singular feminine and nominative/accusative plural neuter, which all have the form aliqua.  Thus:  aliquī, aliqua, aliquod “some.”

Notes

Other Indefinite Pronouns

Common to these pronouns is the fact that in substantival usage they are formed from interrogative pronouns and a particular suffix, but in adjectival usage they are built out of the relative pronoun and this same suffix.

Note:  In the masculine and feminine accusative singular, -m- becomes -n- :  quendam, quandam.  Likewise in the genitive plural of all genders:  quōrundam, quārundam, quōrundam.

Notes

The negative pronoun nēmō (“no one, none”) has only a single form.  For the neuter, nihil (“nothing”) is used.  Both are used only substantivally and in the singular.  In a few cases, the missing forms are supplemented with nūllus, -a, -um (“no, not a”), or by rēs, reī (“thing, matter”).

Pronominal Adjectives

Pronominal adjectives take a middle position:  in the genitive and dative singular, they are declined as pronouns (genitive -īus, dative -ī ), although alius, -a, -ud  has -ud  even in the nominative and accusative singular neuter.  In all other cases they follow the a-/o- declension.

The pronominal adjectives are:

They follow the paradigm nūllus, -a, um :

Usage:

Pronominal adjectives are used adjectivally as well as substantivally:

Correlative Pronouns

Correlative pronouns introduce a correlation.  They provide information about quantity or quality.

The pronouns tālis and quālis follow the third declension;  tantus and quantus follow the paradigm of the a-/o- declension;  tot and quot are indeclinable.

Usage:

Correlative pronouns are used mainly in sentences of comparison:

In addition, quantus, -a, -um and quālis, -e can be used both as interrogative and relative pronouns:

There are correlative adverbs as well.  They are similarly employed in sentences of comparison and not declined:

Latin numerals include:

Synopsis of the Numeric System:

Declining the Numerals

Only a few of the cardinals are declined:

• The plural of mīlle  is formed regularly according to the third declension:  mīlia, mīlium, mīlibus, mīlia, mīlibus.  In the plural it is always used as a substantive.  Hence a concept counted by it is always in the genitive:  duo mīlia nāvium “2000 ships” (lit.:  “two thousands of ships”).  Contrast its singular:  mīlle nāvēs  “1000 ships” (lit.:  “one thousand ships”).

• All hundreds from ducentī, -æ, -a  (200) on are declined regularly after the a-/o- declension.

• The first three cardinals, ūnus, -a, -um  (one), duo, -æ, -a  (two) and trē, tria (three), are declined.  trē is declined as a third-declension adjective of the i-stems, ūnus, -a, -um and duo, -æ, -a, except for the endings in blue, as adjectives of the a-/-o declension:

The ōrdinālia are all declined as members of the a-/o-declension.  Their main use is in specifying year numbers and hours:  annō sescentēsimō nōnō (ab urbe conditā)  in the year 609 (since the founding of Rome);  hōrā nōnā around the ninth hour (= ~3:00 p.m.).

Distribūtīva follow the regular forms of the a-/o- declesnion in the plural;  they render the “distribution” of an amount of something (< distribuere “distribute, deal out”) and occur next to plural words:  centēnī mīlitēs  “100 soldiers each,” bīnī litteræ  “two letters apiece.”

Adverbia numerālia  answer with a frequency responding to the question, “how often?”  They each possess only a single form apiece, and are thus not declined: